Paraphrasing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 30

Paraphrasing - Essay Example In our home for instance supervision of children even on simple matters as just browsing the internet is very normal. I therefore have grown up appreciating the important role of parental guidance in our lives. This has become so entrenched in me that seeing fellow youth just doing their own things and making decisions without parental involvement for me seemed strange at some point. I for instance find extremely threatening in terms development and growth for children are allowed a lot of freedom to access and experiment with technology on their own. However, with and as I continue to mingle with people from different cultures and parts of the world I realise that things are different. Children from other cultures are left to surf the internet on their own devoid of any form of parental guidance. Critically looking at the issue I begin to change my biases because I find these children are left to learn on their own and control their own at an early age hence their development could even be faster. Interaction with other cultures is therefore a very important factor behind changes in our biases. Age is also important as well as the level of exposure one has to the outside

Parasitology (Helminthology) Essay Example for Free

Parasitology (Helminthology) Essay Loa loa is a filarial parasite transmitted by tabanid female flies of the genus Chrysops (C silacea and C dimidiate). The incidence of infection within endemic region of the central and west African rain forest is high with 20-40% of the population being microfilaraemic , and about twice as many habouring adult worms without showing patent microfilaraemia (Dupont et al.,2007). The adult worms actively migrate through subcutaneous tissues at rates of up to 1cm/ min. Female Loa loa measures 50- 70mm in length and 0. 5mm in diameter, while the males measures 30 -35mm in length and 0.4mm in diameter. The microfilariae forms, measures 290-300Â µm by 6-8Â µm in size. During infection the microfilariae forms are released into the blood stream, where they become numerous between 10a m and 2pm(diurnal periodicity). Moreso, the presence of the sheath and three or more terminal nuclei distinguish the microfilariae of L. loa from other blood –borne microfilariae. ( Strickland, 2000) Transmission is by day –biting female tabanid flies, which pick up the microfilaria of L loa during blood meals . The injested microfilariae lose their sheath , penetrate the gut wall of the tabanid female fly, and migrate to the cells of the fat body , where they molt twice . The infective filariform larvae (L3)develop in 10 to 12 days and moves to the proboscis. When new host is biting by the female tabanid fly, the infective filariform larvae are injected and develop into adult worms over the course of 6- 12months .( John and Wayne, 2005) L loa infection ( Loiasis) is quite broad , ranging from asymptomatic infection to life threatening complication, which includes meningoencephalitis ,renal failure and endomyocardial fibrosis. Thus , L loa infection often induces a mild to moderate pathology with patients presenting with pruritis, localized angioedema (Calabar swelling), arthralgia or ocular problems caused by conjunctival migration of adult worms. Also, fibrotic or inflammatory reactions around adult worm may cause hydrocele or intestinal blockage. (Strickland, 2000) The level of microfilariaemia is a critical parameter in the transmission of disease(Piessens and Partono ,2007). Immunity may be seen as a control measure of microfilariaemia, killing of adult worm or a resistance to infection that operates against the infective L3 stage. However, studies of the host immune response mechanisms implicated in the control of microfilaraemia , in the amicrofilaraemic ( Mf- ) individual have shown evidence of antibody- dependent cell cytotoxicity, not only for Loa loa infection, but also for other filariasis. Thus, the circulating anti- sheath antibodies is present in sera of amicrofilaraemic (Mf- ) Loa loa infected individual and absent in heavily infected (Mf+)microfilaraemic individual ( Pinder et al ., 1990) Many studies on molecular biology, concerning cellular immune responses induced by filariae infections and their implication in protection and control of microfilaraemia have been carried out. Although , no studies have been published on the cellular response of Loa loa , but a greater cellular reactivity have been reported in non – endemic individual,who are amicrofilaraemic(Mf) , in comparison with endemic individual who are microfilaraemic (Mf+) infected with Loa loa(ref). Thus , the T -cell cellular response plays an important role in mediating immunity and major role for antibody dependent cellular cytotoxic mechanisms in destroying parasites. (Couissinier and Dessein, 1995) The objective of this term paper aims at looking at the role of pathology , mediated by cellular immune response in an Loa loa infected individuals. Source: (www.cdc.gov) Date :02/19/2011 Figure 1. Diagrammatic LIFE CYCLE OF Loa loa During a blood meal, an infected fly (genus Chrysops, day-biting flies) introduces third-stage filarial larvae onto the skin of the human host, where they penetrate into the bite wound. The larvae develop into adults that commonly reside in subcutaneous tissue. The female worms measure 50 to 70 mm in length and 0.5 mm in diameter, while the males measure 30 to 35 mm in length and 0.4 mm in diameter. Adults produce microfilariae measuring 250 to 300 ÃŽ ¼m by 6 to 8 ÃŽ ¼m, which are sheathed and have diurnal periodicity. Microfilariae are usually recovered from spinal fluids, urine, and sputum. During the day they are found in peripheral blood, but during the non- circulation phase, they are found in the lungs. The tabanid fly ingests microfilariae during a blood meal. After ingestion, the microfilariae lose their sheaths and migrate from the flys midgut through the hemocoel to the thoracic muscles of the arthropod. There the microfilariae develop into first-stage larvae (L1) and subsequently into third-stage infective larvae (L3). The third-stage infective larvae migrate to the fly proboscis and can infect another human when the fly takes a blood meal. PATHOLOGY of Loa loa Clinical manifestations are variable and are more significant in visitors to an endemic region than in indigenous people. Severity ranges from a mild nuisance as the occasional worm passes beneath the conjunctiva of the eye to significant CNS invasion and coma in people with a high microfilaremia. (Strickland, 2000) The most common and characteristic findings in loiasis are Calabar swellings, which are focal regions of angioedema, usually located in the extremities. These erythematous swellings occur suddenly, range in size from 5 to 15 cm, and resolve gradually over hours to days. The cause is unknown, but they may represent an immune response to antigenic material at a region where the worm has migrated. Calabar swellings generally occur at only one site at a time and may recur sporadically for years, even after a person has left an endemic region. Interestingly, they are more common in visitors to an endemic region than in the local inhabitants. Fatigue and arthralgias also are not uncommon. ( Strickland ,2000) Subconjunctival migration of the adult worm, which is the eye worm, is generally accompanied by transient swelling of the eye lid and intense conjunctivitis. Although most episode resolve spontaneously and completely, however rare cases of retinal artery occlusion and macular retinopathy due to aberrant migration of the adult worm have reported (Ralph and Eagle(Jr), 2010). The most serious complication of Loa loa infection is meningoencephalitis, which is associated with the central nervous system CNS and occurs predominantly in patients with high numbers of circulating microfilariae. The severity of CNS involvement ranges from mild headache, meningismus coma and death. More so, the microfilariae are found in the cerebrospinal fluid, and in fatal cases, degenerating microfilariae result to necrotic granulomas in the bra in. ( Oyerinde , 1999) Another serious complication associated Loa loa infection, is membranous glomerulonephritis. It occurs in patients with hematuria and proteinuria, which may be due to immune complex. Also, Loiasis may be one cause of tropical pulmonary eosinophilia. Lymphadenopathy and lymphadenitis are also features of loiasis , but are less prevalent than in other filarial infection. Thus , when Loa loa microfilariae are found within lymph nodes , they may be intravascular or within adjacent microabscesses, they also wander throughout the body and have been reported seen in sleep , lung , gut and CNS.(Oyerinde , 1999) Loiasis have also been implicated in the etiology of some cases of endomyocardial fibrosis in equatorial Africa based on the higher prevalence of endomyocardial fibrosis in Loa – endemic areas than in other regions in Africa and higher level of antibodies detected in some individuals and also higher levels of antifilarial antibodies is reported to have been detected in some ind ividual with endomyocardial fibrosis. (Oyerinde, 1999) (Source. Marty and Anderson, 1995) Figure 2. Adult nematodes migrating beneath the conjunctiva of the human eye. . IMMUNE RESPONSE AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF Loa loa Immunity may be seen as control of microfilaraemia, killing of adult worm or a resistance to infection that operates against the infective L3 stage. Like the other microfilarial nematode , Loa loa is able to survive in it host by modulating the host immune response .However, studies of the host immune mechanism implicated in the control of microfilaraemia in the amicrofilaraemic individuals have shown evidence of antibody -dependent cellular cytotoxicity in Loa loa infection.( Baize et al.,1997 ). Circulating anti –sheath antibodies have been reported to be present in the sera of amicrofilaraemic (Mf-) individual and absent in the sera of microfilaraemic positive individual (Mf+). This antibodies are effective in mediating complement-dependent leukocyte in adherence to micofilariae.( Baize et al., 1997) Many studies on molecular biology, concerning cellular immune responses induced by filariae infections and their implication in protection and control of microfilaraemia have been carried out. Although , no studies have been published on the cellular response of Loa loa , but a greater cellular reactivity have been reported in non – endemic individual,who are amicrofilaraemic(Mf-) , in comparison with endemic individual who are microfilaraemic (Mf+) infected with Loa loa. Thus , the T -cell cellular response plays an important role in mediating immunity and major role for antibody dependent cellular cytotoxic mechanisms in destroying parasites.( Maizels et al,2008). Recently, attention is been paid to the involvement of T helper (Th) subset in antifilarial response. The T – cell response plays an important role in mediating immunity and a major role for antibody dependent cellular cytotoxic mechanisms in damaging parasites. Moreover , many studies have compared the proliferation and cytokine profile of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from microfilaraemic (MF+)individual and amicrofilaraemic individual(Mf -) infected with Loa loa in response to antigens of several parasitic stage. Thus , a stronger lymphoproliferative response and consistent levels of both Th1 ( IL-2 –interleukin- 2,IFN-ÃŽ ³ interferon gamma) and Th2 (IL -4,IL-5) type cytokine are reported to be observed in response to adult worm and microfilariae antigen in amicrofilaraemic (Mf-) patient, while the microfilariae positive(Mf+) patient is characterized by unresponsiveness of T cell to proliferation and production of cytokine .( Baize et al., 1997) The unresponsiveness of T cell in microfilariae positive individual (Mf+) is reportedly associated with the IL-10 cytokines ,which down regulate the function of both the Th-1 and Th-2 cells by inhibiting the proliferation and production of IFN- ÃŽ ³, IL-4 and IL-5. Moreover, a significant high production of IL-10 by amicrofilaraemic (Mf-) individual, compared with microfilariae positive (MF+) individual and similar expression of IL-10 mRNA support the guess that IL-10 alone is not responsible for the unresponsiveness of the T cell in Mf+.( Karita et al.,2010) Furthermore ,the adult female worm and the infective larva L3 elicit Th2 responses , with high IL 4 production and appearance of IgG1 and IgE antibodies ,whereas exposure only to microfilariae elicits Th1 responses , characterized by high initial IFN-ÃŽ ³ production and IgGa antibody. However, chronic exposure to microfilariae can lead to Th2 responses CONCLUSION. The pathology of filariasis is immune- mediated, in which the host immune response plays a major role in protecting and controlling infection in individuals. Although , study carried out on the cellular immune response, concerning the proliferation and production T cellular response in both amicrofilaraemic (Mf-) and microfilariae ( Mf+) individual , is indicative of Th1 and Th2 cytokines response to adult worm and microfilariae antigen in amicrofilariae (Mf-) , and unresponsive in microfilariae (Mf+)(ref).However, T cell unresponsiveness in Mf+ patients associated with the IL-10 down regulation of the Th-1 and Th-2 cytokines is not a conclusive evidence of T cell unresponsiveness to microfilariae positive (Mf+) patient. REFERENCES Baize ,S, Wahl, G, Soboslay,PT, Egwang,TG, and Georges,AJ, (1997). T helper responsiveness in human Loa loa infection; defective specific proliferation and cytokine production by CD4+ T cells fron micofilaraemic subjects compared with amicrofilaraemics. Clin Exp Immunol 108:272-278 . Couissinier – Paris ,P, and Dessein ,AJ, (1995). Schistosomal –specific helper T cell clones from subjects resistant to infection by Schistosoma mansoni are Th0/2. European Journal Immunology 25:2295-302 Dupont , A, Zue-N’dong , J, and Pinder, M, (2007). Common occurrence of amicrofilaraemic Loaloa filariasis within the endemic region. Trans R soc Trop. Med Hyg, 82:730 John, MG, and Wayne, M, (2005). Filarial infections , pp 6. Parasitic Infections of the Skin, 6th (ed) John Wiley and Sons, New York Karita ,H, Taru ,M, and Sakari ,JT, (2010). Loa loa Microfilariae Evade Complement Attack In Vivo by Acquiring Regulatory Proteins from Host Plasma, pp 3886. In; Infection and Immunity , volume 77, America Society of Microbiology. Maizels , RM, Bundy ,DAP, Selkirk, ME, Smith, DF, Anderson ,RM,( 2008). Immunological modulation and evasion by helminthes parasites in human populations. Nature 365 :797- 805. Oyerinde, JPO, (1999). The filarial worm,pp 256-257. Essential of Tropical Medical Parasitology , 1st (ed) University of Lagos Press. Piessens ,WF, and Partono , F, (2007). Host-vector –parasite relationships in human filariasis. Semin Infect Dis 3:131-5 Pinder , M, Dupont, A, Egwang ,TG, (1990) . Identification of a surface on Loaloa microfilariae the recognition of which correlates with the amicrofilaremic state in man .Journal Immunology 141:2480-6 Ralph , C, and Eagle(Jr), MD, (2010). Ocular Pathology Review . Director, Department Of Pathology, Wills Eye Hospital Strickland, GT, (2000). Filarial Infection , pp 754-755. Hunter’s Tropical Medicine and Emerging Infectious Diseases, 8th (ed).

Madness and Insanity in Shakespeares Hamlet - Hamlet and Insanity Essa

Hamlet and Insanity  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   William Shakespeare’s supreme tragic drama Hamlet does not answer fully for many in the audience the pivotal question concerning the sanity of Hamlet – whether it is totally feigned or not. Let us treat this topic in detail, along with critical comment.    George Lyman Kittredge in the Introduction to The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, explains the prince’s rationale behind the entirely pretended insanity:    In Shakespeare’s drama, however, Hamlet’s motive for acting the madman is obvious. We speak unguardedly in the presence of children and madmen, for we take it for granted that they will not listen or will not understand; and so the King or the Queen (for Hamlet does not know that his mother is ignorant of her husband’s crime) may say something that will afford the evidence needed to confirm the testimony of the Ghost. (xii)    Critical opinion is divided on this question. A.C. Bradley in Shakespearean Tragedy staunchly adheres to the belief that Hamlet would cease to be a tragic character if he were really mad at any time in the play (30). On the other hand, W. Thomas MacCary in Hamlet: A Guide to the Play maintains that the prince not only feigns insanity but also shows signs of true insanity:    Hamlet feigns madness but also shows signs of true madness) after his father’s death and his mother’s overhasty remarriage; Ophelia actually does go mad after her father’s death at the hands of Hamlet. For both, madness is a kind of freedom – a license to speak truth. Those who hear them listen carefully, expecting to find something of substance in their speech. Is it they, the audience, who make something out of nothing, or is it the mad who make something out o... ... Felperin, Howard. â€Å"O’erdoing Termagant.† Modern Critical Interpretations: Hamlet. Ed. Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea House, 1986. Rpt. of â€Å"O’erdoing Termagant: An Approach to Shakespearean Mimesis.† The Yale Review 63, no.3 (Spring 1974).    Kittredge, George Lyman. Introduction. The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. In Five Plays of Shakespeare. Ed. George Lyman Kittredge. New York: Ginn and Company, 1941.    MacCary, W. Thomas. Hamlet: A Guide to the Play. Westport, CN: Greenwood Press, 1998.    Mack, Maynard. â€Å"The World of Hamlet.† Twentieth Century Interpretations of Hamlet. Ed. David Bevington. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968.    Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 1995. http://www.chemicool.com/Shakespeare/hamlet/full.html No line nos.      

Market Segmentation, and Product Positioning Essay

For the purpose of this assignment, I am assuming myself as the owner of a plastic molded toy company in United States that manufacturers, and distributes plastic molded toys through retailers across the country and around the world. The company is capitalizing on the strong growth in the children’s toys segment and planning to expand in an aggressive manner throughout the nation. The company offers unique, world class and high quality toys which appeal to children of all ages and nationalities around the world. The operations of the manufacturing plant have commenced and the quality of toys produced by my company is comparable with or even better than those produced by the top toy companies in the country. Mission Statement The mission statement of my company is â€Å"to bring fun and happiness to every child in the world†. The mission statement focuses on three points. First it says that the company has the objective of brining fun and happiness. Second, the company is focused on children. Third the company wants to become a global company to bring fun and happiness to every child in the world. The emphasis is on international growth and expansion. Foreign Market for My Product and Service One foreign market for the toys of my country is France. France is already importing toys from the USA. There is a large market for safe and trendy plastic molded toys, and the toys made by my company comply with the requirements of the EU Toy Directive. The tie up with the French distributor is the first step in globalization. Later my company will set up sales offices in different parts of the world. Later it will open branches and also set up manufacturing operations in several parts of the world. Marketing Plan The marketing plan for my company is to sell three million plastic molded toys during the first year of operation and generate sales revenues of $45 million during the first year. This target is based on the manufacturing capacity of my company and the expected sales figures from distributors. Product: The toys will be made from the finest quality plastic and use high quality additives imported from Germany. The toys will comply with the requirements of the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act (CPSIA). The toys will reflect the latest trends in toys. Price: The price range of toys will range between $11 and $32. The average price of toys will be $15. Place: The distribution of toys will be done by six national toy distributors. The toys will be available in at least 230 toy stores all over the US. In addition, the toys will be available on at least five websites that sell toys. In addition, one distributor will be appointed in France who will market my toys in France. Promotion: The toys will be advertised on internet banners, websites that sell toys, and social media sites frequented by children. There will also be search engine advertising and advertising on mobile phones. Personal selling will be done by company sales persons in selected twenty stores selling toys. In addition, company sales persons will also interact with distributors to ensure that distributors sell the toys through a large number of consumers. Potential Audiences The potential audiences for my marketing plan are children between the age of 3 and 12 in the US. These children require toys that are safe, attractive, and long lasting. Further, children also love to buy toys that reflect the latest trends. This may mean characters from the latest movies, comic books, or computer games. The needs of the target audience are fun, laughter, and light entertainment. Market Segment The market segment for this product is children between the age of 3 and 12 years in the United States. Dolls will be targeted at girls, video game characters will be targeted at boys, and comic book characters will be targeted at children between 8 and 12. The rationale for this segment is that molded plastic toys in general are preferred by children between the ages of 3 and 12 years. Girls prefer to play with dolls. Boys are interested in video game characters. Finally, comic book and comic strips are targeted  at children between 8 and 12 as these children read comics and comic strips; the toys based on comic characters should be targeted at this segment. Target Market The target market will be children between the ages of 3 and 12 who are located in the six states where the distributors are located. The 230 retailers where the toys are sold are also located in the same states where the six distributors are located. The rationale for this target market is that our company has distribution and retailing access only to those states. SWOT Analysis Strengths: The strengths of my company are excellent quality products. My company is financially strong. The products made by my company are compliant with U.S. Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act (CPSIA), and EU Toy Directive. In addition, my company has distribution access to six states in the US. The agreements with six distributors ensure that my company’s products have a comfortable market. Weaknesses: The internet based sales are low. There are no sales of molded toys in other parts of the country. Retailers in other states do not stock our toys. Our company does not have well-known brand recognition. Even though my company has appointed a distributor in France the sales in France are low. Opportunities: My Company has opportunities if it appoints more distributors in the USA. Further, there is land available next to our existing facilities. If our company purchases the land the production of molded toys will increase three times. The larger volume of production at one location will enable my company to realize economies of scale. If my company appoints more distributors in Europe, the sales of my company will increase. Threats: There is strong competition in the molded plastic toys market. Not only top toy makers but even small entrepreneurs make molded plastic toys. The economic downturn leading to low disposable incomes is also a threat to toy sales. Changes in trends during the peak seasons can render large stocks unsalable and can lead to losses. Market Position The market positioning for the plastic molded toys made by my company is moderate in prices but high in quality. The plastic molded toys made by my  company will be safer than, and better in quality than the products of Hasbro, Lego, and Tiger. The rationale for this strategy is that the objective of my company is to persuade more distributors to carry our toys. When the quality of our toys is compared to those of top brands in the market, distributors agree to carry our brand. 5 Cs Strategic Marketing Analysis We carry out the 5 Cs strategic marketing analysis of my company in the following manner: Customers: The customers are children between the age of 3 and 12. In several cases the purchase decisions are made by the parents. Children want plastic molded toys that bring them fun, joy, and happiness. Company: My Company can fulfill the needs of children who want to buy plastic molded toys. My company keeps a close watch on market trends and the changing requirements of children. My company can change its production at short notice and make exactly those plastic molded toys that the children demand. Competition: Small plastic molded toy makers compete on price. They make and sell toys cheap. On the other hand each of the top toys making companies makes plastic molded toys. Companies such as Mattel, Hasbro, Bandai, Lego, Playmates Toys, and Tiger each compete in the plastic molded toys segment. Collaborator: The collaborators of my company are the six distributors plus the distributor in France. The suppliers of plastic pellets are also our collaborators. The suppliers enable our company to use the highest quality of raw materials and make plastic molded toys of the highest quality. Context: The context is that plastic molded toys are being imported at low prices. Barriers to trade have been removed because of WTO. The economy is recovering but the recovery is still slow. The society approves plastic molded toys but looks down on children who play with plastic molded toys instead of electronic or computer games. The technology is coming up with improved computer games and internet based games. References: Bell Melissa J. How to Make Molds for Plastic Toys (2013), retrieved on 23 October 2013 from: http://www.ehow.com/how_5426610_make-molds-plastic-toys.html Daily Motion, Making Magazine, Simple Molding and Casting for Toy Duplication (2013) retrieved on 23 October 2013 from: http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xgjgfq_simple-molding-and-casting-for-toy-duplication_school Youtube, Moulding Process for plastic toys in China by ODM Pro (2013), retrieved on 23 October 2013 from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NZh7VfxBmcw

Net present value vs Internal rate of return Essay

How do the results of the NPV technique relate to the goal of maximizing shareholder wealth? The NPV technique measures the present value of the future cash flows that a project will produce. A positive NPV means that the investment should increase the value of the firm and lead to maximizing shareholder wealth. A positive NPV project provides a return that is more than enough to compensate for the required return on the investment. Thus, using NPV as a guideline for capital investment decisions is consistent with the goal of creating wealth. In theory, why is NPV the most appropriate technique for making capital budgeting decisions? The NPV method is theoretically the most appropriate method for making capital budgeting decisions because it measure wealth creation, which is the assumed goal of financial management. NPV is an absolute measure of a project’s profitability and indicates the expected change in owners’ wealth from a capital investment. As an evaluation technique, NPV considers all expected future cash flows, the time value of money, and the risk of the future cash flows. Thus, NPV can help identify projects that maximize shareholder wealth. If a firm selects a project with an NPV of $75,000, what impact should this decision have on shareholder wealth? If the estimated cash flows and discount rate are accurate, this project should increase shareholder wealth by $75,000. If a project’s NPV is positive, what does this suggest about the required versus estimated return on the project? What does this suggest about accepting the project? A positive NPV suggests that the estimated return on the project is greater than the required return for the project. The NPV decision rule is to accept a project whose NPV is greater than zero because this investment should increase shareholder wealth. The IRR measures a project’s yield or expected rate of return. This return does not depend on anything except the cash flows of the project. Thus, the IRR provides a single number summarizing the merits of a project. Mathematically, the IRR is that rate of return (discount rate) that makes the present value of all expected future cash flows equal to zero. That is, the IRR is the discount rate that causes a project’s NPV to equal zero. Why may using the IRR method as a decision criterion not lead to maximizing shareholder wealth? What factors can lead to misleading results when comparing the IRR with the NPV? If projects are independent and are not subject to capital rationing, using the IRR method in evaluating projects indicates the ones that maximize shareholder wealth. However, using the IRR method as a decision criterion may sometimes lead to selecting projects that do not maximize wealth if the projects are mutually exclusive or capital rationing exists. When evaluating mutually exclusive projects, the IRR may indicate a different decision than the NPV because of the reinvestment rate assumption. The IRR implicitly assumes reinvestment of all intermediate cash inflows at the IRR, whereas the NPV implicitly assumes reinvestment of all intermediate cash inflows at the cost of capital. This reinvestment rate assumption may lead to different decisions in selecting among mutually exclusive projects when any of the following factors apply: (1) differences in timing of cash flows among the projects, (2) differences in scale, and (3) differences in the useful lives of the projects. What are the similarities and differences in decision rules when using NPV versus IRR? For independent projects with conventional cash flows and no capital rationing, the NPV and IRR generate the same accept-rejected decision. Thus, the decision rules are similar for investment projects. The decision rule for NPV is to accept the project if the NPV is positive and reject the project if the NPV is NPV is negative. The decision rule for IRR is to accept the project if the IRR equals or is greater than the required rate of return and reject the project if the IRR is less than the required rate of return. Technically, the firm should be indifferent between accepting and rejecting a project with an NPV equal to zero or an IRR equal to the cost of capital because such an investment would not change shareholder wealth. The cost of capital is the discount rate for the NPV and the hurdle rate for the IRR. The firm should accept the project because it has a positive NPV. However, the discounted payback method is inconsistent with shareholder wealth maximization because the method ignores some cash flows that contribute to the present value of investment. What are two reasons for the superiority of the NPV method in evaluating capital investment projects? The NPV method is the best approach in evaluating projects because it measures the amount by which a capital investment creates wealth. This is because the NPV is an absolute measure of a project’s worth. In addition, NPV has a more realistic reinvestment rate assumption than IRR. It implicitly assumes reinvestment of intermediate cash inflows at the required rate of return. Both reasons supporting the superiority of the NPV method assume that managers invest the cash flows from the investment for the benefit of shareholders. In summary, no other capital budgeting technique does a better job of measuring wealth creation than the NPV method. Which capital budgeting techniques are increasing in popularity? Which are decreasing in popularity? Survey results suggest an increased use of more sophisticated capital budgeting techniques. The use of discounted cash flow techniques, specifically NPV and IRR, has increased in popularity over time. Several reasons may explain increasing popularity of these methods such as the widespread use of personal computers with spreadsheet programs that reduce the knowledge and effort required to calculate discounted cash flow measures and increased familiarity of managers with these techniques. NPV has been the dominant method taught in business schools for many years and many financial managers hold business degrees, especially MBAs. The popularity of the IRR is mostly likely because it is a measure of yield and is easy to explain to people who do not have formal training in finance. Since financial managers often deal in yields, some may be slightly more comfortable dealing with the IRR than NPV. Methods declining in popularity include the use of the payback period, although still popular, and the accounting rate of return. The rationale for this decline in popularity likely results from several factors including their simplicity and failure to consider the time value of money. In addition, the accounting rate of return uses accounting income instead of the cash flows.

The eNotes Blog Jennifer Egan Tweets Serial Fiction with BlackBox

Jennifer Egan Tweets Serial Fiction with BlackBox Last week The New Yorker began nightly tweeting portions of a new Jennifer Egan story, titled Black Box. Over the course of ten installments, Egans futuristic spy thriller was formed, with each 140-character tweet serving as its heroines undercover dispatches. Read all together the tweets have a certain poetic quality; you cant help but notice pacing and rhythm in the lines. Case in point, from chapter 8: White clouds spin and curl. A blue sky is as depthless as the sea. The sound of waves against rocks existed millennia before there were creatures who could hear it. Spurs and gashes of stone narrate a violence that the earth itself has long forgotten. Your mind will rejoin your body when it is safe to do so. A full, collated version of the story can be seen here. You can also view it in its original, serialized form at The New Yorkers twitter page, here. Black Box was prominently featured in the magazines science-fiction issue this past week. In it, Egan shares her inspiration and process to writing this unique story: I’d been wondering about how to write fiction whose structure would lend itself to serialization on Twitter. This is not a new idea, of course, but it’s a rich one- because of the intimacy of reaching people through their phones, and because of the odd poetry that can happen in a hundred and forty characters. I found myself imagining a series of terse mental dispatches from a female spy of the future, working undercover by the Mediterranean Sea. I wrote these bulletins by hand in a Japanese notebook that had eight rectangles on each page. The story was originally nearly twice its present length; it took me a year, on and off, to control and calibrate the material into what is now â€Å"Black Box.†    Asked whether she found the form of writing for Twitter restrictive, Egan replies, No, because that was so essential to the voice itself. I mean, the premise is that these are the thoughts of the protagonist, which are being recorded as part of her spy mission. But they take the form of lessons, and actually the working title of the piece was â€Å"Lessons Learned.† The idea was that with each move she makes, or each thing that happens to her, she has a kind of reflection, which has a bit of a didactic quality to it. I always imagined her observations happening in this very atomized way; that was just inherent in the voice itself. And on whether Black Box is a spy thriller-cum-philosophical story, What makes something interesting enough to pursue is always the feeling that it’s unfolding on several levels at once. The best-case scenario is one in which I don’t have to look too carefully at what those levels are- I just kind of feel them happening. But one level that I was aware of and pleased about was a sort of mythological connection. I mean, she’s by the Mediterranean; she has had physical enhancements to her body that give her exceptional powers; there’s the explicit mention of the fact that she loved reading myths as a kid. I loved feeling, in this futuristic atmosphere, a connection to those ancient stories. So that was one level that I was aware of. And, yes, the sense of a kind of philosophical argument playing out was there as well. A full transcript of Egans interview can be found here. For those who are fans of Egans novels, the protagonist of Black Box is the future adult form of the precocious Lulu, of  A Visit from the Goon Squad. For those who have never read any of Jennifer Egans work, Black Box stands alone as an enticing and suspenseful introduction to her writing that certainly bears a reading.

Andrew Jackson Essays - Cherokee Nation, Andrew Jackson, Free Essays

Andrew Jackson Essays - Cherokee Nation, Andrew Jackson, Free Essays Andrew Jackson Like any hall of fame, its inductees are the best in whatever they do, from baseball or football to something like being President. If you are a member of any hall of fame (including the one for the Presidents), it means that you have done something special or have a certain quality about yourself that makes you worthy to be in a hall of fame. My nominee for the Presidents hall of Fame is our seventh President of the United States, Andrew Jackson. I'll go over his presidency, focusing on both the highs and the lows of his two terms in office, from 1829-1837. The issues that I'll focus on are states' rights, nullification, the tariff, the spoils system, Indian removal and banking policies; these controversies brought forth strong rivalry over his years of president. He was known for his iron will and fiery personality, and strong use of the powers of his office that made his years of presidency to be known as the "Age of Jackson." Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767, in a settlement on the border of North and South Carolina. He was orphaned at age 14. After studying law and becoming a member of the Bar in North Carolina later he moved to Nashville Tennessee. Their he became a member of a powerful political faction led by William Blount. He was married in 1791 to Rachel Donelson Robards, and later remarried to him due to a legal mistake in her prior divorce in 1794. Jackson served as delegate to Tenn. in the 1796 Constitutional convention and a congressman for a year (from 1796-97). He was elected senator in 1797, but financial problems forced him to resign and return to Tennessee in less than a year. Later he served as a Tennessee superior court judge for six years starting in 1798. In 1804 he retired from the bench and moved to Nashville and devoted time to business ventures and his plantation. At this time his political career looked over. In 1814 Jackson was a Major General in the Tennessee Militia, here he was ordered to march against the Creek Indians (who were pro-British in the war of 1812). His goal was achieved at Horseshoe Bend in March of 1814. Eventually he forced All Indians from the area. His victory's impressed some people in Washington and Jackson was put in command of the defense of New Orleans. This show of American strength made Americans feel proud after a war filled with military defeats. Jackson was given the nickname "Old Hickory", and was treated as a national hero. In 1817 he was ordered against the Seminole Indians. He pushed them back into Spanish Florida and executed two British subjects. Jackson instead that his actions were with approval of the Monroe administration. His actions helped to acquire the Florida territory, and he became a provisional governor of Florida that same year. In 1822 the Tennessee Legislature nominated him for president and the following year he was elected the U.S. senate. He also nearly won the presidential campaign of 1824 however as a result of the "corrupt bargain" with Henry Clay. Over the next four years the current administration built a strong political machine with nationalistic policies and a lack of concern of states rights. In 1828 through a campaign filled with mud slinging on both sides, Andrew Jackson became the seventh President to the United States. Instead of the normal cabinet made up by the president, he relied more on an informal group of newspaper writers and northern politicians who had worked for his election. I believe that this made him more in contact with the people of the United States, more in contact with the public opinion and feelings toward national issues. President Jackson developed the system of "rotation in office." This was used to protect the American people from a development of a long-standing political group by removing long-term office holders. His enemies accused him of corruption of civil service for political reasons. However, I think that it was used to insure loyalty of the people in his administration. States rights played an important part in Jackson's policy's as president. In the case of the Cherokee Indians vs. The State of Georgia,

Writing a Pitch

Writing a Pitch Writing a Pitch Writing a Pitch By Maeve Maddox Those of you planning to enter the Amazon/Penguin Fiction Contest have probably written your pitch by now. Every novelist, sooner or later, must give some thought to the pitch. Like a synopsis a pitch must presentin a short space if written, in a few minutes if spokenan overall description of the novel: main character/s, main conflict, main plot twists, and resolution. The pitch contains additional information about targeted audience and marketability. The Amazon/Penguin contest is expected to draw as many as 10,000 submissions. The 10,000 will be cut to 2,000 on the basis of 300-word pitches. Even if you dont plan to enter, you may find the contest criteria useful in planning the pitch you will eventually need if youre writing a novel. The 300-word contest pitches are expected to give judges a clear idea of the following aspects of the submitted novel: overall strength plot development character development originality of idea writing style intended market how the book fits within this market why the reader would want to read the novel The contents of a pitch are the same as what goes into a query letter. Good luck to those of you planning to enter. Any of our readers who entered last year may want to offer last minute tips. Guidelines for writing a fiction query letter Breakthrough Novel Contest site Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Fiction Writing category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Has vs. HadStory Writing 101Oppose and Opposed To

Tourism in Moab Utah Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Tourism in Moab Utah - Research Paper Example The town’s population increases to over 100,000 mountain bikers annually. The surroundings are characterized by stark red rock, and a hot and arid environment. â€Å"The La Sal Mountains nearby provide a cooler escape† (Buckley 423), and Moab also functions as a minor destination for amenity migrants. The town has been transformed as a result of tourism. Moab is located in a valley fifteen miles long and three miles wide within the heart of the Colorado Plateau, in the American West. â€Å"The biblical name Moab was adopted in 1880 when a mail route was established between Salina, Utah, and Ouray, Colorado† (Moabhistory, 2011). Moab was among the last parts of colonized America to be â€Å"civilized†, with the first permanent white settlers appearing well after the Civil War, in the 1870s. Prior to their arrival, Native Americans had inhabited the valley. â€Å"Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, the Hole in the Wall Gang, and the Wild Bunch rode to hide-outs around here† (Ricks 50) after robbing banks in Colorado mining towns. Farms, ranches, a community school, railroad and ferry services across the Colorado river were established by 1885, and a three-span steel bridge by 1912. In 1890 Moab became the county seat of Grand County, was designated as a town in 1903, and as a third-class city in 1936. The area’s economy based on farming, ranching and Utah’s finest fruit growing industry declined with the uranium boom of the early 1950s which brought in an influx of prospectors, miners, speculators and workers. New facilities such as markets, schools and businesses developed. In 1911 the first commercial oil well was drilled, and the oil boom that enriched the Moab economy lasted into the 1960s. With the demand for uranium declining by the early 1960s, potash became the next boom industry. A modern potash plant and a railroad spur line to connect vital points were constructed in 1963 (Moabhistory, 2011). For over the last quarter of a

Business strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Business strategy - Essay Example Porter’s value chain provides an important tool for a tool for developing and sustaining competitive advantage for a company. It underlines the need for creating and retailing value for the organisation. Value, in general, can be defined in respect of customers, employees and owners or other stakeholders. Value addition is considered an important ingredient in dealing with the competitions, as it provides the organisation with a strategic tool. An individual’s beliefs or conceptions about what is desirable, good or bad – forms the value system (Kotler, 1974). Innovation, excellence and value go hand in hand in today’s competitive environment. Customers and the target market are crucial stakeholders for any organisation. Configuring value means defining, creating, branding and pricing the offer. The company can acquire competitive advantage on its rivals on account of marketing efforts, brand building, value creation, innovation, operational efficiencies etc. But more important is to sustain the advantage. The value configuration describes how value is created in a company for its customers, how the most important business processes function to create value for customers and the way a particular company/ organization conducts its business. Some of the value addition gradually takes the form of threshold competencies for the organisation, and the consumer starts expecting these value additions from the company. The process of value creation encompasses managing quality in the entire chain of processes leading to the production of final product or service. Quality in essence is delivering superior value to the customer. The value phenomenon is complicated and multifaceted. The term â€Å"value† can be defined in different ways according to the adopted perspective of th e analysis: it is possible to determine a â€Å"customer value†, a â€Å"firm value†, a â€Å"stakeholder value† (Mele and Colurci, 2006). For the companies to identify their sustainable

Economic History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Economic History - Essay Example One of the most major market failures in the world is the presence of imperfect information, and indicative planning is considered as being one of the best attempts that can be used in order to bridge this information gap. Basically, the aim of indicative planning is "to improve the performance of the economy by the provision of better economic information: forecasts or targets are published but compliance with them is voluntary. The underlying logic is that the plan, via collective action, can supply economically valuable information which, as a public good, the market mechanism does not disseminate efficiently" (Young & Holmes, 2000). There are many different reasons as to why it is believed that we need this indicative planning, and namely: if there were complete and efficient forward markets there would be little need for indicative planning or any shared set of assumptions because enterprises could use such markets to hedge the risks attendant on their investment decisions; the economic forecasts embodied in an indicative plan give both buyers and seller's confidence that the general levels of demand for products and supply of materials would be forthcoming; by identifying early the existence of any oversupply or bottlenecks, investment behavior can be modified in a timely fashion and the incidence of market disequilibria reduced; and both business and consumers can benefit from exercise in collective and consistent market research, which is freely distributed to all the relevant actors in the economy. (He, 2007). In regards to French indicative planning, there are many other issues that need to be discussed here, and the theory of French indicative planning is an issue which is of primary importance; the founder of the French indicative planning was a man named Pierre Masse, and it was he who actually introduced the concept of information pooling, where planners carry out 'generalized market research', thus allowing a common view of the future, and "This research involves consulting with leading actors in the economy for their input, a process called concertation. After this step the elements of the plan are adjusted to assure coherence and to guarantee policy coordination. The goal is concerted economy" (He, 2007). The French adoption of indicative planning had many steps involved within it, and this begins around the year 1500, when France surpassed China as being the nation with the largest GDP in the world; Jean-Baptiste Colbert, who was the finance minister under Louis XIV at that time, was pursuing strongly for aggressive and comprehensive governmental policies, and in fact, during this time, Colbertism became a word that was used to describe interventionalist state activity. Similarly, in the 19th century, France was considered as being a 'late' industrializer, and policy was more directed towards the nurturing and protecting of the industry as a whole. In 1830 France was surpassed by the UK; in 1936 a leftist regime came to power, led by L'eon Blum, and resulted in establishing a Ministry of

Linguistics and Media Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Linguistics and Media - Term Paper Example It is the short form or ellipsis of a word or phrase. It is also called initialisms: using the initials of the words and compressing it into short form, such as in the word LOL taking L from ‘laughing’, O from ‘out’, and L from ‘loud’. 2. Abbreviations: 1. f2t? : free to talk 2. cul8r: see you later 3. Ruok? = Are you ok? 4. Xlnt! = excellent 5. 2day: today 6. B4: before 7. thN: then/than The word formation process used here is pseudo-acronym. These appear as acronym or abbreviation but they actually are not and they do not stand for anything. They are used because, when pronounced as intended, they resemble the sounds of other words. They are words or initials used to give the sound of an entire word or phrase. Such as the words given above: Before = b4. B. Frames: In the excerpt, the main structuring frame is the semantic frame, it is a coherent structure of concepts; a word, idea or a concept cannot give meaning unless all elements of the str ucture are present (Gelbukh 307-312). The extract is a pep talk, an encouraging speech that motivates the people and congratulates them on choosing the right option for themselves and their country. The major points of the passage were conveyed in empathic tones, choosing to use ‘we’ rather than ‘I’, it emphasizes the importance of the people and that only by standing together they can overcome obstacles. It constructs a mental state of unity and importance in listeners Attributes and values of the frame: 1. Attributes: The attributes in this frame is the victory that is being celebrated which brings with it a lot of challenges also. 2. Values: The individual instantiation is the phrase â€Å"I have never been more hopeful than I am tonight† - it represents the individual symbolization of the attribute: the victory that comes with challenges, that the individual is hopeful that they can be solved C. Metaphors: A conceptual metaphor refers to understa nding one idea or concept with the help of another idea. An idea or thought is explained in terms of another, they are a way of communication and shape our way of thinking and acting. Conceptual metaphors have become a regular part of our communication. The American public is hungry for a national policy that is coherent and cohesive: The conceptual metaphor in this sentence is â€Å"hungry for† which shows want and need of the American Public and the extent and depth of their need. This expresses the ferocity of their need so that the reader has an acute idea of the profundity of their wish. Last week I was depressed, my spirits sank and I was really low. But my best friend has cheered me up since, and I am feeling up now: The cognitive or conceptual metaphor in this sentence is â€Å"spirits sank and I was really low. I am feeling up now† it is trying to express emotions in terms of directionality. The term low refers to being down, less, dejected, morose, depressed etc.; sank also assumes the same meanings. It shows the direction of his emotions that they are low or have sunk, meaning he is very depressed. Opposing low is up; which has a positive meaning or perception in the human mind, up depicts a state of growth, happiness, acceleration, betterment etc. so saying that I am up now means that I am feeling better or happier now. We launched this campaign not far from here on a beautiful June day. It has been an extraordinary journey. The metaphor is â€Å"it has been an extraordinary journey†; journey is a source domain in this sentence, the word from which we draw the

AIC test and diabetes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

AIC test and diabetes - Essay Example From this study, it was found that A1C level of a patient provides a reliable measure of controlling chronic glycemia without the need for a timed sample or fasting, and it correlates highly with the long-term risk of diabetes-related complications and mortality. Most important, this test tool is more effective in detecting undiagnosed diabetes and there is a higher potentiality of using the measurements of AIC levels to screen type 2 diabetes (Choi et al, 2011). How the new tool can be integrated into practice It has been found that AIC test is not recommended for diagnosing diabetes among adolescents with diabetes. The conventional fasting plasma glucose test in which a patient is put on fast for 8 hours prior to testing has been found to detect more undiagnosed cases of diabetes among adolescents compared to the AIC test. The suitability of this among children is still debatable. For example, the American Diabetes Association has given guidelines on how it can be used in children yet researchers from Michigan University caution against the same. The AIC test tool is therefore best applicable to adults. This suitability is supported by research which indicates that AIC test is more sensitive in diagnosing adults accurately compared to adolescents. The application of the findings of this study to adults simply entails making a shift from the use of the fasting blood glucose tests to using AIC tests when diagnosing diabetes among adults.... The AIC test enables physicians diagnose patients who are diabetic faster and more comprehensively. Because of this, the AIC test can be used to increase the number of adults diagnosed with type 2 diabetes and thus the number of people with diabetes who receive timely intervention to reduce the complications and clinical implications of the disease. This will particularly be important in diagnosing asymptomatic patients because of the accuracy of obtaining glucose levels. The result of this will be the reduction of diabetic patients, especially asymptomatic patients, who suffer from multiple organs systems failure due to late diagnosis. This application is important because there is a rapid increase in the prevalence of type 2 diabetes. Less than 13% of adults in the US and Asia have been diagnosed with this type 2 diabetes. Among the newly diagnosed patients, 25% already had microvascular complications, indicating a 6- to 7-year time lag that exists between the onset of type 2 diabe tes and its diagnosis. The second application of the AIC test among adults is making predictions of diabetes for purposes of timely management. The AIC test is more powerful in identifying people who are at a high risk of becoming diabetic in future or who have undiagnosed diabetes. The use of AIC test will therefore be useful in increasing the prediction of new-onset diabetes among adults and thus the number of people that are likely to be on diabetes prevention and management programs. Â  This application is vital because when taking into consideration the clinical implications and complications of diabetes, it is of paramount importance to identify people with who are at a high risk of becoming diabetic in future or who have undiagnosed

Linguistics and Media Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Linguistics and Media - Term Paper Example It is the short form or ellipsis of a word or phrase. It is also called initialisms: using the initials of the words and compressing it into short form, such as in the word LOL taking L from ‘laughing’, O from ‘out’, and L from ‘loud’. 2. Abbreviations: 1. f2t? : free to talk 2. cul8r: see you later 3. Ruok? = Are you ok? 4. Xlnt! = excellent 5. 2day: today 6. B4: before 7. thN: then/than The word formation process used here is pseudo-acronym. These appear as acronym or abbreviation but they actually are not and they do not stand for anything. They are used because, when pronounced as intended, they resemble the sounds of other words. They are words or initials used to give the sound of an entire word or phrase. Such as the words given above: Before = b4. B. Frames: In the excerpt, the main structuring frame is the semantic frame, it is a coherent structure of concepts; a word, idea or a concept cannot give meaning unless all elements of the str ucture are present (Gelbukh 307-312). The extract is a pep talk, an encouraging speech that motivates the people and congratulates them on choosing the right option for themselves and their country. The major points of the passage were conveyed in empathic tones, choosing to use ‘we’ rather than ‘I’, it emphasizes the importance of the people and that only by standing together they can overcome obstacles. It constructs a mental state of unity and importance in listeners Attributes and values of the frame: 1. Attributes: The attributes in this frame is the victory that is being celebrated which brings with it a lot of challenges also. 2. Values: The individual instantiation is the phrase â€Å"I have never been more hopeful than I am tonight† - it represents the individual symbolization of the attribute: the victory that comes with challenges, that the individual is hopeful that they can be solved C. Metaphors: A conceptual metaphor refers to understa nding one idea or concept with the help of another idea. An idea or thought is explained in terms of another, they are a way of communication and shape our way of thinking and acting. Conceptual metaphors have become a regular part of our communication. The American public is hungry for a national policy that is coherent and cohesive: The conceptual metaphor in this sentence is â€Å"hungry for† which shows want and need of the American Public and the extent and depth of their need. This expresses the ferocity of their need so that the reader has an acute idea of the profundity of their wish. Last week I was depressed, my spirits sank and I was really low. But my best friend has cheered me up since, and I am feeling up now: The cognitive or conceptual metaphor in this sentence is â€Å"spirits sank and I was really low. I am feeling up now† it is trying to express emotions in terms of directionality. The term low refers to being down, less, dejected, morose, depressed etc.; sank also assumes the same meanings. It shows the direction of his emotions that they are low or have sunk, meaning he is very depressed. Opposing low is up; which has a positive meaning or perception in the human mind, up depicts a state of growth, happiness, acceleration, betterment etc. so saying that I am up now means that I am feeling better or happier now. We launched this campaign not far from here on a beautiful June day. It has been an extraordinary journey. The metaphor is â€Å"it has been an extraordinary journey†; journey is a source domain in this sentence, the word from which we draw the

Current themes in businesses Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Current themes in businesses - Literature review Example Gender equality is a much talked about fact, but its applicability is less evident and visible in the business world. According to Williams (2013), â€Å"[a]lthough there are more reported gender discrimination statistics related to female employees, men and women can both be victims of gender discrimination.† Summary: This article centers on describing the gender discrimination persisting in the Western business world. As per Vekaik (2005), â€Å"[t]hirty years after Harold Wilson's Labour government put in place the country's first Sex Discrimination Act, Britain's women are still suffering from unequal pay and, increasingly, sexual harassment in the workplace.† The article contemplates that even though the business protocol emphasises that gender neutrality is the ideal concept for an organisation, the business all over suppresses women when it comes to efficiency, promotion and performance recognition. The article reveals that even though the workplace supports a ge nder neutral business environment, there is always an underlying gender discriminative element where masculine characteristics are more prominently reflected. The article points out that the ideological dilemmas existing among people create a tendency for gender discrimination, as it is a provocation to people in building a self-identity of their own. The article mentions that the workplace is an environment which nurtures many types of individuals, and each wants to establish their identity, which evokes gender discrimination. It asserts that mainly the hesitation concerning gender discrimation in workplace is giving an ideal gender-equal status to the Western business organisations. The article also projects two organization, â€Å"Red tech† and â€Å"Blue tech,† where the female staff talk about the gender bias existing in their organisations and their professional experience of discriminated they encountered during their work. The article vividly points out that tw o strategies are needed to evaluate gender discrimination: one is to look into it when gender discrimination occurred in the past and, secondly, individualise one’s own gender discrimination experiences and analyse that particular matter. According to Gluck (2013), â€Å"[v]ictims of gender discrimination lose motivation and morale necessary to perform their jobs effectively.† Critique : The author is extremely knowledgeable, and the journal article is informative and has a descriptive format which can hold people’s attention and interest. The article is professional in many ways, and in the initial stage itself it is reflected, as the article has a well informative title with author’s name and academic identity. The article also mentions the research purpose of the article and the importance of this subject in the current business world. Moreover, the French interpretation of the extract shows the professionalism of author: he is more concerned with spre ading a message to readers who are not well-versed in the English language. The best part of this academic article is that it brings out the truth about the workplace environment with regard to gender discrimination. As per Sharma (2011), â€Å"[g]ender discrimination is deep-rooted so women empowerment through better education, employment opportunities and reservation at various places only, in long term can eliminate this problem†. The article also points out the reason behind gender discrimina

Social media Essay Example for Free

Social media Essay The power of Web 2. 0 was a turning point for internet. It enabled formerly linear information traffic to become multifaceted and multidirectional. In the process, it also allowed information to be more substantial and concentrated. Thus, knowledge and intelligence became readily accessible to anyone and the readily available information is richer and more substantial to the users. However, there are several points of contention with Web 2. 0. The very definition of the word is a concern. Those who are willing and able to define it came up with a definition too long and complicated o be understood in its entirety. Those who perceived the definitions got lost in the way, while some easily gave up. Without the concise definition for the jargon it will remain difficult to comprehend what it embodies. Secondly, the entertainment industry may feel threatened by this new open media where everyone is instantly getting their ten seconds of fame. Web 2. 0 is taking away the difficult stage of getting screened to become a talent. In fact, it only opens the media more. It embraces performers, regardless if they have talent or if they are simply funny. Privacy is also put into question. Because Web 2.0 entails sharing of information, there is the great chance for information to be accessed despite security measures. Sources agreed that the privacy issues are not exclusive to social websites such as Multiply, Friendster, Facebook, and others of its kind. Even legitimate websites with educational and professional content can fall prey to intrusion. It is also alarming that not all users are very concerned, or careful. Yet given these disadvantages, it should be noted that Web 2. 0 has its advantages too. It enriched publicly available information, creating a massive information framework with data coming from different sources. It also expedited and added quality to editing this available information, because visitors are also users and are able to add or edit information and serve comments and suggestions instantly. Web 2. 0 revolutionized the web and its users and will undoubtedly continue doing so until it develops to something larger. To make this complicated term easier to understand, it is worth noting that Web 2. 0 has several characteristics. On top of all those, one stands through. Web 2. 0 is all about collective intelligence that happens spontaneously and continuously. It is seen in Wikipedia, Blogger, Multiply, and many other networking and enterprise websites. It is seen in Linux’s and Microsoft’s forums, and many other companies who have embraced the power of the consumers. The advantages outdid the disadvantages, and the benefits of the process proved it recommendable for the use of every netizen who needs and uses information. Recommendations To ensure that Web 2. 0 gives more of its benefits than the disadvantages, the users will have to play a crucial role in controlling it. First, the issue of complicatedness should no longer be a problem. The topic of definition is continually being discussed. The jargons used to define Web 2. 0 four or three years ago were now translated into layman-friendly terms. Thus, with a little research, one can get the concise meaning of the word and be able to understand it. The openness of the media should also be regarded as a positive development. Entertainment movers should take it as an opportunity to find hidden talent with less expense and effort. Looking at the situation, Web 2. 0 provides an avenue for creators to meet investors—talents to find promoters, writers to find publishers, and many more similar pairs. In turn, people who have become popular in their respective industries should not feel threatened. Instead, they can opt to provide help for aspirants, or simply serve as inspiration. On the other hand, online performers should note that what they post publicly on the internet becomes available worldwide. In fact, even if one chooses to post something for the consumption of a selected few audiences, there is still a way for intruders to get their hands on these information. Privacy practices should be observed properly and with strict attention. Awareness and monitoring are additional practices that will help alleviate security concerns in the use of social media. Lastly, it is recommended that social websites and Web 2. 0 media organizers maintain monitoring and proofreading of the content being posted in their websites. It should be noted that because Web 2. 0 is an open media, this opens people to the opportunity to put up inappropriate content. Regular checks on posted content and appropriate editing and tagging will help lessen these problems on inappropriate content, which can greatly affect the services of the website and the image of the company behind it. The Web 2. 0 may be a complicated thing, but it should be accepted that it is something that is readily happening today. It is the new internet, the greatest things that has happened to the web so far. While many businesses are still unsure about plunging into the Web 2. 0 trend for their enterprises, it has gone big on an individual level. Having a blog or being a member of a social networking site or contributing to a forum or an online encyclopedia is no longer surprising. In fact, it has become a way of life for most. This proves that Web 2. 0 is more than just hype. It is business, education, and life for its current users and those to come. References Advantages and disadvantages of social media and Web 2. 0. 2008. Retrieved May 8, 2008, from http://compassioninpolitics. wordpress. com/2008/02/01/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-social-media/ Anderson, P. 2007. What is Web 2. 0: Ideas, technologies, and implications for education. Retrieved May 8, 2008, from http://www. jisc. ac. uk/media/documents/techwatch/tsw0701b. pdf

Facial Recognition Technology for Identification

Facial Recognition Technology for Identification Abstract Facial recognition is a crucial factor of everyday identification processes: human beings recognize and evaluate each other by means of the face. Whenever driving licences, identity and membership cards are checked or wherever access is controlled by security staff, the identity is verified by looking into somebodys face. Thus, unlike other biometric features, e.g. the fingerprint or iris recognition, facial recognition is a transparent procedure well-known to human beings. However, especially in the context of the international fight against terrorism it has become obvious that the traditional way of identifying individuals is insufficient. There are certain limits to the natural recognition process carried out by human beings: The recognition performance is not only impaired by difficulties with the recognition of people from other ethnic origin or deceptions due to a different hair-do or beards, but also by subjective impression based on a persons outward. The requirement of successful personal identification in access control and in other cases leads to using the results of biometrics. Biometrics Face recognition is a passive, non-invasive method for verifying the identity of a person, Offers the benefits of its unique facial technology in the form of customized overall solutions for the areas of access control, border control, ID-Management, search for criminals and video surveillance Face recognition has come to be an active research area with numerous applications in recent years. In this thesis, a variety of approaches for face recognition are reviewed first. These approaches are classified according to basic tasks i-e Face Detect, face Normalization, and Face recognition. Then, an implementation of the face recognition method, the Eigenface recognition approach is presented in detail as well as other face recognitions methods i-e Local Feature Analysis, Neural Networks and Automatic face processing are discussed in general. Introduction Ever since the birth of first mankind, human beings have continually been seeking for personal possessions. From the very basics of food and clothes, to cars, houses, and the more recent substantial property of data and information, it is becoming increasingly important that such valuable assets be sheltered by means of security control. Throughout history, the types of technologies used on the access control systems are countless. From the traditional systems such as security guards checking personal IDs to the very fundamentals of keypads and locks and password or entry code, the focus now has moved to the more advance technologies, particularly in todays multifaceted society. Organisations are continuously seeking for a more secure, suitable and economical way of property protection. The problem associated with traditional mechanisms is that the possessions could be lost, stolen, forgotten, or misplaced. Furthermore, once in control of the identifying possession, any other unauthorised person could abuse the privileges of the authorised user. Therefore there is a need of another approach to properly differentiate the correct (right) person from an impostor by positive identification of the person seeking access. Biometrics is one rising development in the field of access control system that provides true identification. Although the word biometrics sound very new and high tech, it is in fact the oldest form of identification known to man. Since the dawn of man, a persons face and voice was used to identify him/her. Before the digital age, a hand written signature was the only method used by a person to assert a unique form of identification that was difficult to copy. Popular biometric systems in use today include fingerprint recognition, iris recognition, voice recognition, and facial recognition systems. These systems are in practice in different organizations like banks, airports, social services offices, blood banks and other highly sensitive organizations. Biometric system offers the most accurate authentication solution and convenience. Biometrics systems can be integrated into any application that requires security, access control, and identification or verification of people. With biometric security, we can dispense with the key, the password, the PIN code; the access-enabler is human beings not something he/she know, or something in his/her possession. Chapter 02 This part of the dissertation provides the general overview of biometrics. Definitions such as Automatic, Physiological and Behavioural characteristics are also discussed as well as different types of biometric systems i.e. one-to-one and one-to-many. General Biometrics Base systems model, how it works and Multimodal Biometrics systems are also discussed in detail. In the last section of this chapter, a comprehensive overview of the right approach in selection of different technologies for an origination in terms of business objective, user acceptance, FFR, FAR, organisational environments, cost and a comparison of all biometrics are also presented. Chapter 03 Different types of biometric technologies are described in this chapter i.e. finger prints, iris and retina, voice, biometric signature and how these technologies work and the main features of these technologies with the help of diagrams. Chapter 04 This chapter is one of the most important chapters which explain the general back ground of face recognition technology and how face recognition works. It gives a brief discussion of how verification and identification is achieved with the help of face recognition system. Actual techniques involved during face verification and identification i.e. faces detection, face normalisation and face recognition are also discussed in detail. Steps involved during the face detection i.e. coarse detection phase and refined search phase are discussed as well as how Normalisation is achieved through different steps i.e. lighting normalisation, scaling normalisation, rotation normalisation and background subtraction. Face recognition and methods of face recognition i.e. Eigenfaces, feature analysis, neural network and automatic face processing are discussed in this presentation. Chapter 05 In this chapter of my dissertation, a proposed model of face recognition system for attendance of university students is discussed. The specification of the system is also compiled after the extensive study of face recognition products of different Vendors. Chapter 06 This final chapter of my dissertation contains the conclusion, future work and issues involved with face recognition system. A review of the biometrics technology Biometrics: An overview In todays networked and digital world the role of system security has a vital importance. In originations a large number of professional people are involved in one form of electronic transaction or another. Securing a companys digital assets and identities is a necessity for financial success. Ignoring IT security increases the risk of losses for any company moving through this electronic world. Logging on to a system by entering user ID and password is very simple but its simplicity makes serious security problems. There are, however, people who use easy guess passwords or leave written passwords near to their computer. In this situation there is no way to confirm that the person is logged on the system using his/her ID and password or some one else, nothing can prevent someone else from accessing sensitive material. Its like a passport system that doesnt require a photograph. In addition, time consuming tasks behind the management of user ID and passwords divert already insufficient resources from other important responsibilities. Establishing an accurate identity is the main focus of the information systems security in recent years and great efforts are made in this field. Two types of identification systems are in use now today. In one type identification system flawed identity checking results in unnecessary duplication, fraud and client disruption, resulting costs and risks. While in other type of identification system an accurate identification procedure and effectiveness may be undermined by unpopularity resulting falsification and evasion. Chapter2 Three conventional forms of identification are in use. Origination ID or smart cards. The use of passwords or Personal Identification Numbers, mother name, place of birth, home address etc. The third form of identification is to identify something unique about a person, such as fingerprints, voice recognition, hand geometry, face structure, iris and retina. This third form of identification is known as Biometrics. Biometrics is a branch of science in which we study, what makes us biologically unique. It is also referred to the science and application of statistical analysis of biological characteristics (Physiological/ Behavioural). In security terms, Biometrics refers to technologies that analyse human characteristics for security purposes. Therefore Biometrics technologies are concerned with the physical parts of the human or personal trait of human being. There are different definitions of security base biometrics that have been circulating for a numbers of years. According to Ashbourn, an expert in Biometrics, Biometrics is a measurable physiological and / or behavioural trait that can be captured and subsequently compared with another instance at the time of verification). [1] The Biometrics Consortium states Biometrics is automated methods of recognizing a person based on a physiological or behavioural characteristic. [2] The international Biometrics Group defines biometrics as the automated use of physiological or behavioural characteristics to determine or verify identity [3] Physiological characteristics are fingerprint, Hand geometry, iris pattern ,retinal, ear shape and facial scans etc Behavioural characteristics are voice pattern, key strokes, signature etc. As mentioned, biometric technologies are anxious with the physical parts of the human or personal mannerism of human beings. The word automatics basically means that biometrics technology must recognise to identify /verify human characteristics rapidly and automatically, in real time. Unique physiological characteristics or behavioural mannerisms are examined in biometrics verification for an individuals identity. Physiological characteristics are essentially unchangeable such as hand geometry, iris pattern , palm prints, face structure and vane shape etc .while behavioural characteristic such as ones signature, voice or keystroke dynamics are changeable and these behavioural characteristics can change over time. They are both controllable and less controllable actions. The initial sample of the biometrics template, which is stored in the data base during the Enrolment, must be updated each time it is used. Although behaviour characteristics based biometrics is less costly and less intimidating to users, physiological characteristics have a tendency to offer greater accuracy and security. In any case, both techniques grant an extensively higher level of identification and verification as compare to smart cards or passwords technologies. A password or personal identification number (PIN) is not unique for an individual ,it can be stolen ,forgotten or lost, while a biometric characteristic is unique to each individual; it can be used to prevent fraud or theft. It cannot be lost, stolen or forgotten. There already many places such as research laboratories, defence (military) installations, VIP offices, day care centres and cash points where access is guarded by biometrics base authentication system. The following biometric identifiers currently obtainable or under development are fingerprints, body aroma, ear shape, face recognition, keystroke dynamics, palm print, retinal scan, iris pattern, signature, DNA, vein check and voice pattern. Biometrics-based Systems A biometric based system is a system that in some way uses physical characteristics or personal traits of a human being. These systems are not only, mainly used for security, but also use for encryption. Encryption The processes of translating a message (plaintext), with the help of software, into a programmed message/encoded text (Cipher text), called Encryption. This is usually accomplished using a secret key and a cryptographic code. [4] Type of Biometrics-based Systems There are two types of Biometrics-based systems. One-to-one systems (Verification system) One-to-many systems (Identification System) One-to-one system (verification) This type of biometric system works on the base of one to one matching and authentication principles where the system asks and attempts to answer the question Am I who I claim to be? At first a biometric sample of a person is provided to the system and then the system matches this sample to the previously stored template during the enrolment mode for that person. The system then decides whether that is the person who claims the identity. After a successful matching of the fresh sample with the stored template, the system authenticates the person. These types of systems are also referred to as verification systems. The verification system is a fast response system because it minimises the use of resources and time by providing biometrics sample/ information to the system which specifies the stored template in the data base for that person. [5] One-to-many system (identification) This type of biometrics system works on the base of one to many recognition principles. The system attempts to answer the question, Who am I? The basic purpose of this system to identify a persons identity by performing matches against all biometrics templates stored in a data base or a data library. A person does not claim his/her identity to the system; instead the person just gives the system some biometric data. The system then performs to match this data to all templates previously stored in the database and decides whether a match can be made. It is not necessary that the system responds with the persons name, it could be the persons ID or other unique identity. These types of systems are referred to as identification systems [6]. Identification systems have a slow response as compared to verification systems. This is because they require much more powerful resources due to the fact that more comparisons are required by identification systems. The biometrics identification system also prevents a person from registering twice on the system and ensures that a person is not already present in a data base. This type of system can be used in a large scale public benefits organisation, such as being used at banks where a person would try opening a second account on another name. This system can also be used with immigration where a person could try to enter the country on false documents. General Biometrics Base Authentication System Model A general biometrics base authentication system model consists of three major components, hardware, software and interface. Hardware is used to capture the biometrics information and software is used to maintain and manage it while an interface with application system that will use the result to confirm an individuals identity. The system operates in two different modes: Enrolment mode Authentication mode Enrolment mode: In this mode a users biometrics data is provided to a system, which stores this users biometric sample in a database or data library as a template. Hardware such as a biometrics readers/ scanners, cameras are used to capture biometrics sample. This stored template is then labelled with a user identity e.g. name, identification number etc. The way biometrics operate Some biometric base authentication systems may need a number of biometrics samples in order to build a profile of the biometric characteristics. These exclusive characteristics are then extracted and changed in to mathematical code by the system. Which is then stored in to the biometric system as a biometric template for the person who enrolled? The template is store in the memory storage of the system, or in computer database, smart card or barcode. A threshold is set in to the biometrics base authentication system according to the level of security [7], (a high threshold is set for high level of security) To secure the template to the person, a trigger or other mean of securing such as personal identification number, or a smart card that store the template which read by a card reader during the authentication mode, are use in biometrics. In some biometrics system when ever a person interacts with the system a new biometrics sample is provide to the system which is compared to the template. If this new sample and stored template is match (the score of new match if exceed from the set threshold then access is granted to that person). As both physical and behavioural characteristics are inconsistent with time, this change may be due to the age of the person, general health condition, working and environmental conditions and time pressures etc. the biometric base authentication system must allow for these delicate changes, in this case before a match is recorded a threshold *1 is set. This can take the form of an accuracy score *2. The comparison between the template and new sample must exceed this set threshold. If it not exceeds the system will not record the match and will not identify the person. This use of a threshold gives biometric technologies a significant advantage over passwords, PINs and ID badges. The use of a threshold affords a tremendous degree of flexibility and if the comparison between the new biometric sample and the template exceeds the stated threshold, identity will be confirmed. Threshold:-a predefine number, often controlled by system administer, which establish the degree of correlation necessary for a comparison to be deemed a match. Score: A number indicating the degree of similarity or correlation of a biometrics match Capture, extraction, comparison and match/non match are the four stages use by all biometric authentication systems. Capture A physical or behavioural sample is captured by the system during enrolment. Extraction unique data is extracted from the sample and a template is created. Comparison the template is then compared with a new sample. Multimodal Biometric System In some environments a signal biometrics identifier base system such as finger scan, face scan or iris scan etc often not able to meet the desired performance requirement of the organization. Different biometrics base identification system such as face recognition, finger print verification and vice verification, is integrated and worked as a single biometrics base identification system. Multimodal biometrics base identification system is use to over come the limitation of the single identifier biometrics base identification system. Initial experimental results reveal that the identity established by such an integrated system is more reliable than the identity established by a signal biometrics identifier base system. [8] Selecting the Right Approach In Different Environment Different biometrics base authentication systems are used. To choose the right approach to biometrics authentication it is necessary to understand the requirement of the organisation, the application of the biometrics system, and characteristics of the biometrics devices itself. Following factors are also important to choose a biometrics base authentication system, which most devices cant store raw fingerprints and that fingerprints cant be reconstructed based on the data stored within these systems. Intrusiveness is another factor affecting user acceptance of some devices, particularly iris and retinal scanning systems. [9] Business objective of the organisation The most important aspect to consider when selecting a biometrics base authentication system is the organisation business objectives. The choice biometrics system must meet or exceed organisational business objectives as well as sustain organisation in the coming years. Business objective is the bottom line where organisation starts and end. User acceptances Some biometrics, such as fingerprints, may be apparent as an assault of personal privacy. The system must not associate with other govt agencies biometrics (finger print) recognition system that most devices cant store raw fingerprints and that fingerprints cant be reconstructed based on the data stored within these systems. General intrusiveness can be another factor affecting user acceptance of some devices, particularly iris and retinal scanning systems. Following are the errors of biometrics base authentication system. False acceptance rate (FAR) False acceptance rate (FAR) is a system error. It is the rate at which an interloper can be recognized as a valid user. In one -to-one match during user verification, false acceptance is based on fake attempts, not on the total number of attempts by valid users. If FAR is 1%, it means one out of 100 users trying to break into the system will be successful [10]. FARs become more critical when you attempt to identify users based on biometrics, instead of simply trying to verify a person with a one-to-one or one-to-few operation False reject rate (FRR) False reject rate (FRR) is another type of error of biometrics system. It is the rate at which a valid user is rejected from the system. Consider a finger print recognition system; unfortunately, the conditions under which the original sample was collected can never be exactly duplicated when the user submits subsequence biometrics information to be compared. False reject rate may occur due to following variations. Rotation and Translation because of different positioning of the finger on the finger print device. Downward pressure on the surface of the input device which changes the scale of input device. Non-permanent or semi-permanent distortions like skin disease, scars, sweat, etc To over come FRR it is essential that all biometrics base authentication systems have a threshold value in order to allow for minor differences. With out threshold value FRR occurs and valid users will be probably rejected by system. If the threshold value is too high FAR occur [9]. It is there for necessary to find a proper threshold value. Organisational environments As stated it is important to consider the organisational environment when selecting biometrics base authentication system. Users with wet, dirty or dry hand have experienced problems with finger and palm recognition system. People using gloves generally cant use these systems. Face recognition system cant be easily be used in medical environments where hood and masks are used by users. Cost The direct cost of the system (hardware and software) is the initial considerations. Due to the improvement of features and functionality the over all cost of biometrics system reduces. It not only reduces fraud and eliminating problems associated with stolen or forgotten passwords but also reduces the help desk role. Summary The subject of this chapter is biometrics, which is defined as a method of verifying an individuals identity based on measurement of the individuals physical feature(s) or repeatable action(s) where those features and/or actions are both unique to that individual and measurable. A biometrics system which consists of enrolment mode and authentication mode, unique physiological characteristics or behavioural mannerisms are examined in biometrics verification for an individuals identity. All biometric systems essentially operate in a similar way in a four-stage process that is automated and computerized which are Capture, Extraction, Comparison and Match/non-match. Biometrics system one-to-one is based on one to one matching and authentication principles and is mainly used for verification purposes, while biometrics system one to many works on the principles of one-to-many recognition and is used for identification. Multimodal biometrics base identification system is used to over come the limitation of the signal identifier biometrics base identification system in which different biometrics base identification system such as face recognition, finger print verification and vice verification, is integrated and worked as a single biometrics base identification system. Methodologies of Biometrics Authentication An overview As stated, different biometric systems are use in different organisations according to their requirements. The most common biometrics system in use today includes fingerprint recognition, iris recognition, and voice recognition and face recognition systems. There are also other biometric systems available like retina recognition, vein pattern recognition, signature and DNA matching systems. These systems are not as widely used yet for various reasons. These biometrics systems can be integrated into any application that requires security, access control and identification or verification of people. With biometric security we can dispense with the key, the password and the PIN code; the access-enabler is a person, not something person know or something in his /her possession. Biometrics systems secured resources are based on who a person is. Biometrics systems also minimise the risk that is associated with less advanced technologies while at the same time offering a higher level of security and convenience. Fingerprint Recognition System Fingerprints are one of the human physiological characteristics that do not change throughout someones life. Even identical twins have different fingerprint patterns. The chance of identical twins to have the same fingerprint is less than one in a billion. Fingerprint recognition is generally considered the most practical system for its reliability, non-intrusive interfaces, and cost-effectiveness. In recent years, fingerprints have rallied significant support as the biometric technology that will probably be most widely used in the future. In addition to general security and access control applications, fingerprint verifiers are installed at different organisations such as, defence/military organisations health care, banking and finance, application services providers, immigration, law enforcement etc. The fingerprints strength is its acceptance, convenience and reliability. It takes little time and effort for somebody using a fingerprint identification device to have his or her fingerprint scanned. Studies have also found that using fingerprints as an identification source is the least intrusive of all biometric techniques. [15] Verification of fingerprints is also fast and reliable. Users experience fewer errors in matching when they use fingerprints versus many other biometric methods. In addition, a fingerprint identification device can require very little space on a desktop or in a machine. Several companies have produced capture units smaller than a deck of cards. One of the biggest fears of fingerprint technology is the theft of fingerprints. Skeptics point out that latent or residual prints left on the glass of a fingerprint scanner may be copied. However, a good fingerprint identification device only detects live fingers and will not acknowledge fingerprint copies. [12] Main Feature of Finger print verification system Analysis of minutia points i.e. finger image ridge (verification) endings, bifurcations or branches made by ridges. One of the most commercially successful biometric technologies. Important for applications where it is necessary to verify the identity of those who gain access. How fingerprint recognition system works In biometrics systems fingerprint recognition system is the fastest verification /identification (One-to-One / One-to-Many) system as shown in figure 3, 4, 5. Like other biometrics recognition systems it performs fingerprint recognition with the help of specialised hardware. This specialised hardware is supported by the conventional computer hardware and special software. All biometrics systems operate in two modes, enrolment mode and authentication mode (as discussed in the previous chapter). A sample of the fingerprint of a live person is provided to the system which is then converted into mathematical code (Template) and stored for the enrolee into the database. In the first step of the authentication process, a fingerprint impression is provided to the system. The system takes a digital image (input image figure 3:1:1 below) using different techniques including scanner, optical, and ultrasound or semiconductor chip technologies. The digital image of the fingerprint includes several unique features in terms of ridge bifurcations and ridge endings, collectively referred to as minutiae. [22] In the next step the system uses an automatic feature extraction algorithm to locate these features in the fingerprint image, as shown in Figure 3:1:2. Each of these features is commonly represented by its location (x, y, and z) and the ridge direction at that location; however the feature extraction stage may miss some minutiae and may generate spurious minutiae due to sensor noise and other variability in the imaging process. The elasticity of the human skin also affects the feature extraction process. [33] In the final stage, a final decision of match and non match is made on the bases of similarity between the two sets of features after compensating for the rotation, conversion and dimension. This similarity is often expressed as a score. A decision threshold is first selected. If the score is below the threshold, the fingerprints are determined not to match; if the score is above the threshold, a correct match is declared an authentication is granted to the person. Iris and Retina Recognition System Biometrics which analyse the intricate and unique characteristics of the eye can be divided into two different fields, Iris and Retina. Iris and retinal scans both deal with the human eye. They are done in an extremely different way as compared to other biometrics technology. Iris Recogniton System Iris recognition biometrics base authentication systems have unique characteristics and features of the human iris used to verify the identity of an individual. The iris is the area of the eye where the pigmented or colour circle, usually brown or blue, rings the dark pupil of the eye. It consists of over 400 unique distinguishing characteristics that can be quantified and used for an individual identity. However, only about 260 of those characteristics are captured in a live iris identification process [25]. Iris are composed before birth and, except in the event of an injury to the eyeball, remain unchanged throughout an individuals lifetime. Eyeglasses and contact lenses present no problems to the quality of the image and the iris recognition /scan systems test for a live eye by checking for the normal continuous fluctuation in the pupil size. As Iris patterns are extremely complex and unique they carry an astonishing amount of information. The fact that an individuals right and l eft eye are different and that patterns are easy to capture, it establishes iris recognition